09/6/25 Vector and scalar quantities: • A vector quantity has magnitude and direction. • A Scalar has only magnitude. How to draw a scale diagram 10/6/25 What is radiation • The emission of energy as electromagnetic waves or as moving subatomic particles, especially high-energy particles, which cause ionization. Potential and kinetic energy: • Potential energy is the stored energy within a system depending on an object's position. • Kinetic energy is the energy an object possesses due to its motion. 11/6/25 Specific heat capacity is the amount of energy required to increase the temperature of 1 kg of an object by 1 degree Celsius. Specific heat capacity = change in energy/(mass * change in temperature) Refractive index is the speed of light in a vacuum/ speed of light in a medium. Formula: n = c * v 12/6/25 Focal length: The focal point is basically the diameter of a lens (the complete circle of a lens) Refractive index is basically the difference in density of a medium and the speed of light in a different medium. A convex lens converges the light rays, a Concave lens diverges the light rays, Refraction depends upon the angle, no angle = no refraction. 13/6/25 and 14/6/25 -A longitudinal wave is a wave where particle displacement is parallel to the direction of propagation. -A transverse wave is a motion in which all points on a wave oscillate along paths at right angles to the direction of the wave's advance. Question: Why does water move as a wave when there is a disturbance? Ans: The water molecules share the energy given by the disturbence in the form of a wave, since there is a medium for the wave to travel across, (water waves are not fully transverse, they are a mix of transverse and longitudanal waves) The water molecules move back and forth sharing their energy to the next molecules, and the high points in the water wave is the compression and the low point is the rarefraction (if you look at it like a longitudanal wave) or the hight point is the crest and the lowest is the trough. Crest has the molecules vibrating with all the energy, and trough has all the molecules going back to their original position after sharing the energy. 21/6/25 A resistor is an electronic component that resists or limits the flow of electric current in a circuit. Think of it like a narrow pipe in a water system — it controls how much water (current) flows through. • Current Flow: When electric current tries to pass through a resistor, the resistor opposes it. • Heat: Some electrical energy is converted into heat due to this opposition. Resistors are important in electronics because they: 1. Control Current: Prevent too much current from damaging sensitive components. 2. Divide Voltage: Create specific voltage levels for different parts of a circuit. 3. Protect Components: Limit current to protect LEDs, transistors, microchips, etc. 4. Set Timing: Work with capacitors in timing circuits (like in clocks, alarms). 5. Filter Signals: Used in filters and amplifiers in audio and communication circuits.  Fixed Resistors These have a constant value of resistance. Examples: • Carbon Composition Resistors • Made of carbon powder & binder. • Cheap, used in old circuits. • Metal Film Resistors • More accurate & stable. • Common in modern circuits. • Wire Wound Resistors • Made by winding wire (usually nichrome). • Handle high power & heat. Variable Resistors You can change their resistance value. Examples: • Potentiometers (Pots): • Three terminals, like a volume knob. • Rheostats: • Two terminals, used to adjust current. • Trimmers: • Small adjustable resistors, used for fine-tuning. Special Resistors - Thermistors (Temperature Sensitive) • Resistance changes with temperature. • Types: • NTC (Negative Temperature Coefficient): Resistance decreases as temp increases. • PTC (Positive Temperature Coefficient): Resistance increases as temp increases. • Used in temperature sensors, circuits protection. - LDR (Light Dependent Resistor) • Resistance changes with light. • Used in automatic lights, night lamps. - Varistors (Voltage Dependent Resistor) • Resistance changes with voltage. • Used for surge protection.

09-6-25 Covalent bonding: Chemical bonds are formed by the sharing of electrons. Ionic bonding: Chemical bonds are formed when a metallic object and a non-metallic object share electrons. Metallic bonding: In metallic bonding, electrons are not fixed to an atom, but in a metal, they are delocalized. Groups in the periodic table 10/6/25 The left side of the periodic table is metallic, and the right side is non-metallic. (organic substances.) Calculating the formula of a compound by counting the number of atoms. Moles/ molar mass calculating if a substance has moles = to 1 mole(Avogadro's constant) 11/6/25 Electrons have different levels of orbitals, and the level of orbitals depends on the amount of energy the electron carries. Specific electrons emmit sepcific color depending on the height of the electron orbits. Electron orbitals represent the quantum perspective of orbits, showing the area where an electron is likely to be present. Atoms do have infinite number of orbits, but it can never reach it because the electron often emmits the energy to get more stable and go down the orbit, so if its in the 3rd orbit, it jumps down the 1st orbit by emmiting energy, the energy depends on the height of the orbit, if energy is higher you will get a wave with higher energy.

09/6/25 Single-celled kingdoms • kingdom Monera • kingdom Protista • Kingdom Fungi multi-cellular kingdoms • Kingdom plantae • kingdom animalia • Kingdom fungi Plantae, fungi, and monera have cell walls. Ribosomes: fun:- Protein synthesis Rough endoplasmic reticulum: fun:- makes and transports proteins Vacuole: fun:- Storage of water, waste, nutrients. it also helps maintain turgor pressure in plants. Cytoplasm: fun:- Jelly-like fluid that holds all organelles. mitochondrion: fun:- Powerhouse of the cell 10/6/25 Nitrogen fixation: • The biological process where atmospheric nitrogen is converted into forms usable by plants, primarily ammonia. Deamination: • The removal of an amino group from a molecule, resulting in the release of ammonia. nitrification: • Nitrification is a biological process where bacteria convert ammonia (NH3/NH4+) to nitrate (NO2-) and then to nitrate (NO3-) 11/6/25 • Auxin is the hormone that stimulates plant growth; it hates the sunlight, so it moves away from it. • The stem system is where we can generate an organ with the fluid in the umbilical cord. • Biotechnology talks about how we can extract the specific gene from a plant or any living thing and mix it with a plasmid, and inject it into our body and mix with our or any living thing DNA. • Faster metabolism means a shorter life span.

• The earliest "books" were clay tablets used by the Sumerians around 3000 BCE in Mesopotamia. They wrote using cuneiform. • In ancient Egypt, around 2400 BCE, people used papyrus scrolls — long sheets made from the papyrus plant, rolled into scrolls. • The codex — an early form of the modern book — appeared around the 1st century CE among the Romans. • Instead of scrolls, pages were stacked and bound together along one side, making them easier to use and store. • Early codices were made of parchment (animal skins) rather than papyrus. • During the Middle Ages (5th–15th centuries), monks in monasteries hand-copied books onto vellum or parchment. • These books were rare, expensive, and often richly decorated (illuminated manuscripts). • In 1440, Johannes Gutenberg invented the printing press with movable type in Germany. • The first major book printed was the Gutenberg Bible around 1455. • This invention made books cheaper, faster to produce, and more widely available — revolutionizing education, science, and culture. • Over time, books shifted to paper (introduced to Europe from China via the Islamic world). • The industrial revolution (18th–19th centuries) further sped up book production with steam-powered presses and later offset printing. • Today, books exist in both physical and digital (e-book) forms.

Female hormones primarily include estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone, with estrogen and progesterone being the main sex hormones. estrogen: Estrogen is a group of steroid hormones primarily associated with female reproductive health, but also play roles in other body systems. It is responsible for the development of secondary sex characteristics, the regulation of the menstrual cycle, and bone health. Estrogen also plays a role in brain health and heart health.  progesterone: Progesterone is a naturally occurring hormone primarily involved in regulating the menstrual cycle and supporting pregnancy in females. It plays a crucial role in preparing the uterus for implantation and maintaining a healthy environment for a developing embryo. Progesterone is also produced by the adrenal glands in both males and females, though in smaller amounts.  testosterone: • Production: Ovaries and adrenal glands produce testosterone in females, although at much lower levels than in males.  • Functions: • Libido: Testosterone contributes to sexual desire and arousal in women.  • Bone Health: It helps maintain bone density and can contribute to osteoporosis if levels are too low.  • Muscle Mass: Testosterone supports muscle growth and strength.  • Energy and Mood: It plays a role in energy levels, mood, and cognition.  • Normal Levels: Normal testosterone levels in premenopausal women typically range from 15 to 70 nanograms per deciliter (ng/dL).  • Low Testosterone: Low testosterone levels can lead to symptoms like decreased sex drive, fatigue, weaker muscles, and changes in mood.  • High Testosterone: High testosterone in women can sometimes indicate underlying health conditions, like Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS).  Imbalances and Potential Problems: • Low Testosterone: Low testosterone can result in a variety of symptoms, including fatigue, decreased libido, weaker muscles, and mood changes.  • High Testosterone: While testosterone is essential, excessive levels can lead to symptoms like hirsutism (excess hair growth), acne, and irregular menstrual cycles.

• Solid (Ice) • Found in glaciers, snow, hail, and frost. • Molecules are tightly packed and vibrate in fixed positions. • Liquid (Water) • The most common form we see is in rivers, lakes, oceans, and rain. • Molecules move more freely than in solids. • Gas (Water Vapour/Steam) • Invisible form present in the air. • Formed when water evaporates or boils. • Molecules move very fast and are far apart.

We feel pain because it’s our body’s warning system — kind of like an alarm. Pain tells us that something is wrong and needs attention. Here’s a simple breakdown: 1. Detection: When something harmful happens (like touching something hot or getting hurt), special nerve endings called nociceptors detect it. 2. Signal to the brain: These nerves send signals through the spinal cord to the brain. 3. Processing: The brain processes the signals and says, “Ouch! This is pain!” — so you become aware that something is wrong. 4. Reaction: Because of that feeling, you move your hand away, rest the injured part, or seek help. Pain helps protect you and helps the body heal. Why do we have to feel it, though? If we didn’t feel pain, we could get seriously injured without realizing it. For example, some people with rare conditions that stop them from feeling pain often end up with broken bones, burns, or infections — because they don’t get the warning. So even though pain feels bad, it’s actually a sign that your body is working to protect you.

Refraction is the bending of light when it passes from one medium to another, like from air to water or glass to air. Why does it bend? Because the speed of light changes when it enters a different medium. • In air, light travels fastest. • In denser materials like water or glass, it slows down. • This change in speed causes the light to change direction — that's refraction. • In a vacuum, light travels at about 300,000 km/s (kilometers per second) or 3 × 10⁸ m/s. • But in other materials, it slows down: • In water: ~225,000 km/s • In glass: ~200,000 km/s Formula: n = c/v • n = refractive index • c = speed of light in vacuum (3 × 10⁸ m/s) • v = speed of light in the medium Higher n → Slower light → More bending. Light is an electromagnetic wave. When it passes through a material, it interacts with the atoms, which temporarily absorb and re-emit the light. This delay causes the effective speed to decrease. But — the light still travels at the same speed between atoms, just gets delayed due to interactions.

Chromatography is a laboratory technique used to separate mixtures into their individual components. It works because different substances move at different speeds when dissolved in a fluid and passed through another material. Chromatography = Separation Technique Imagine you have a black ink dot. Though it looks black, it's actually a mixture of colors. Chromatography can separate those colors and show you what's inside. Types: 1. Paper Chromatography: • Uses special filter paper. • A spot of ink/dye is placed on the paper. • The bottom of the paper is dipped in a solvent (like water or alcohol). • As the solvent moves up, it carries the dyes with it. • Different dyes move at different speeds, so they separate. 2. Thin-layer chromatography (TLC): • Similar to paper chromatography. • Instead of paper, it uses a glass or plastic plate coated with a solid (like silica). Uses: • Identifying unknown substances • Checking the purity of a sample • Separating colors in inks or dyes • Drug testing • Forensics

Blood is a vital fluid that carries oxygen and nutrients to all parts of the body, removes waste, helps fight infections, and is made up of plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. • Plasma is the liquid state of blood. • Platelets help to stop the blood from flowing out. Functions of blood: • Carries oxygen from lungs to body and carbon dioxide back to the lungs. • Transports nutrients from the digestive system to cells. • Removes waste from cells to organs like the kidneys. • Protects the body from infections. • Clot wounds to prevent too much blood loss. • Maintains temperature and balance of fluids in the body. There are 4 types of blood • A • B • AB • 0

Impulse is the effect of a force acting on an object for a short period of time. It tells us how much the momentum of the object has changed. Impulse = Force × Time Impulse is also equal to the change in momentum of an object. J = Δp = m(v−u) Where: • m is mass of the object • u is initial velocity • v is final velocity • Δp is change in momentum Imagine you're playing football: • When you kick the ball, your foot applies a force for a short time. • This changes the ball's momentum — that’s impulse!

Latent heat is the energy absorbed or released by a substance during phase change without changing its temperature. Types of Latent Heat: 1. Latent Heat of Fusion – The heat required to melt a solid into a liquid (or released when freezing). 2. Latent Heat of Vaporization – The heat required to boil a liquid into a gas (or released when condensing). Why doesn't the temperature change: When a substance undergoes a phase change, all the energy it absorbs (or releases) goes into breaking or forming molecular bonds, not into raising the temperature. That’s why ice at 0°C and water at 0°C have the same temperature but different energy levels. Real-life applications: • Sweating & Cooling: • Your sweat absorbs heat from your body and evaporates, taking away latent heat and cooling you down. • Boiling Water & Steam Burns: • Steam at 100°C has more energy than boiling water at 100°C because it contains the latent heat of vaporization. That’s why steam burns are more severe than boiling water burns. • Ice Packs in Medicine: • When ice melts, it absorbs heat from the body, reducing swelling. • Refrigerators & Air Conditioners: • These work by compressing and expanding refrigerants, using latent heat to absorb heat from inside and release it outside. • Weather & Hurricanes: • When water evaporates from oceans, it stores latent heat in water vapor. When this vapor condenses into clouds, it releases heat, fueling hurricanes.

Polymers are large molecules made up of repeating smaller units called monomers. These monomers are chemically bonded to form long chains or networks. Types: • Natural PolymersFound in nature. Examples: • Proteins (e.g., in skin and muscles) • Carbohydrates (e.g., starch, cellulose) • DNA (carries genetic information) • Synthetic PolymersMan-made for various applications. Examples: • Plastic (e.g., polyethylene, PVC) • Rubber • Nylon and Teflon Linear Polymers: Long, straight chains (e.g., PVC). Branched Polymers: Chains with side branches (e.g., low-density polyethylene). Cross-linked Polymers: Chains linked by bonds at various points (e.g., Bakelite). Properties: Flexible or Rigid depending on structure. Resistant to chemicals. Used in packaging, textiles, electronics, and more.

Chromatography is a technique used to separate and identify different components in a mixture. It works by making the different substances move at different speeds through a stationary phase while being carried by a mobile phase. • Stationary Phase: The fixed material that the mixture moves through (e.g., paper, silica gel). • Mobile Phase: The solvent that carries the mixture through the stationary phase (e.g., water, ethanol). • Separation Principle: Different components move at different speeds based on their size, solubility, or affinity to the phases. Types: • Paper Chromatography: • Used for separating pigments, inks, or food dyes. • A drop of the mixture is placed on filter paper, and the solvent carries the components upward. • Different substances travel different distances. • Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC): • Similar to paper chromatography but uses a glass plate coated with a thin layer of silica or alumina. • Provides faster and better separation. • Gas Chromatography (GC): • Used for volatile substances. • A gas acts as the mobile phase, carrying the sample through a tube coated with the stationary phase. • Liquid Chromatography (LC): • Used for non-volatile substances. • Often used in medical and drug testing. Rf Value: The Rf value helps identify the separated substances: Rf = Distance moved by the solvent/Distance moved by the substance​ • Rf values are always less than 1. • Each substance has a unique Rf value in a given solvent.

Hooke's law states that the strain of the material is proportional to the applied stress within the elastic limit of that material. F = -kx F = force exerted by the spring. Unit: N -k = Springs constant. unit: N/m x = Displacement of the object. Unit: m Spring constant is always negative because the force of the spring is always opposite to the direction of the movement of the object. Elastic potential energy (1/2)kx^2 Elastic Limit: If the force exceeds a certain limit, the material will not return to its original shape (plastic deformation occurs). Applications: Used in springs, shock absorbers, measuring devices (spring scales), and engineering structures. Limitations: Does not apply to materials beyond their elastic limit or in highly deformed states (like rubber or plastic).

The holographic principle suggests that the 3-dimensional reality we live in is a hologram projected by the 2-dimensional coding. It's like when a 2-D drawing seems like it's 3-D when drawn properly. Theories such as relativity and string theory promote the understanding and the probability of the existence of the holographic principle. Another way of thinking about it, is how a 2-d drawing of a 3-d object contains all the information to recreate the 3-d object, such as the length, the height, or the width. This concept was derived from stephan hawkings equation