Mohammed Asrar

The Industrial Revolution saw major progress in steam power, beginning with Thomas Newcomen’s steam engine (1705) for pumping water from mines.

James Watt improved this engine in 1764, making it far more efficient by adding a separate condenser, leading to widespread industrial use.

Steam engines increased demand for railways, making factories no longer dependent on water sources.

The rise of steam power created a huge demand for coal, leading to expanded but dangerous mining operations involving men, women, and children.

Advancements in mining included ventilation, better transport, gunpowder use, and safety lamps, though health hazards remained severe.

The iron industry also advanced: Abraham Darby used coke to produce pig iron (1709), saving forests previously used for charcoal.

The Industrial Revolution began in the 18th century and transformed society from agricultural to industrial.

It occurred mainly in Britain between 1750 and 1850.

Introduction of new technology and inventions led to the rise of factories and large-scale machine production.

Workers shifted from rural agriculture to urban factories.

Key inventions included:

• Steam Engine by James Watt (1769)

The Karta has unlimited liability, meaning their personal property can be used to repay business debts.

There is limited access to capital, as the Karta’s personal funds may not be enough for business expansion.

The Karta holds excessive power, so an incompetent Karta can negatively affect the business.

Though it has limitations, this form of organisation provides economic security and status to family members and still holds importance in Indian business.

Laundering includes soaking, washing, rinsing, drying, ironing, finishing, and storing.

Soaking loosens dirt but should not be done for too long to prevent dust from resettling.

Strong fabrics like cotton are washed using friction methods (hand rubbing, scrubbing, beating).

Delicate fabrics like silk and wool are cleaned by gentle kneading and squeezing.

Washing machines provide friction and save labour; automatic machines also spin clothes nearly dry.

Care is needed in machine washing to avoid colour bleeding between clothes.